Mobility and Immobility in International Migration Trajectories
The definition of migration has been subject to long conceptual discussions throughout history. Studies that investigate human migrations crossing national borders have failed to adequately account for the notion of mobility. One of the central objectives of the nccr – on the move is to explore the interconnectedness of migration and mobility. The study of this interrelationship allows for an understanding of the significance of a perspective within the examination of human migrations.
Mobility and immobility should not be regarded as binary opposites. Indeed, these two notions essential to human life are rather co-constructed. To thoroughly examine them, a multi-scale approach with a longitudinal perspective is required to fully grasp the multiple phases of mobility and immobility (Carling, 2002; Kallius et al., 2016; Schewel, 2020) that can be observed in migrant trajectories.
With this in mind, we embarked on a study conducted between 2020-2022. This study shows that sub-Saharan refugees use digital technologies to facilitate language learning, enhance daily life, and maintain social and family networks in Switzerland, once they have obtained legal status.
Turkey as a Transit Country
Often individuals from Sub-Saharan Africa opt to pursue their migration to Europe from Turkey. Thanks to the country’s lenient visa policy, one can reach Istanbul within a few hours. Viewed through the lens of a migrant from Africa, this strategy simplifies the arrival process as the country is at the European borders. It is not, however, uncommon for the continuing journey to Greece to require several years and numerous attempts. In addition, there is a possibility that they will need a substantial amount of time to reach their desired destination country.
Turkey has been widely acknowledged as a transit country within the realm of migration studies (İçduygu, 2005), particularly in the case of African migrants (Wissink & Mazzucato, 2018). When examining international transit migration, Africans wanting to reach Europe can be viewed as individuals subjected to immobility. However, this perspective overlooks their ongoing mobility during their migration journey. The fact that they are unable to cross maritime or land borders between Turkey and Greece/Bulgaria does not mean that they are immobile. In fact, our research shows that it is crucial for them to remain mobile to ensure their survival in Turkey and eventually make their way to Europe.
A Sub-Saharan Migration Journey
The case of Salim, who currently holds refugee status in a European country, serves as a perfect illustration of this. In his country, he was studying political science. Nevertheless, his desire was to pursue his studies in France, where he received an acceptance letter from a university. Faced with the impossibility of legal travel, his journey was characterized by phases of regularity and irregularity.
Initially, he arrived in Tunisia and spent a significant amount of time there, also learning Arabic. Subsequently, he traveled to Istanbul via air transport. Within the confines of this country, he made several endeavors to cross over land or maritime borders to arrive in Greece or Bulgaria. Each time he was caught by Turkish forces, sometimes after being pushed back by Greek border guards.
It was only on his (probably) ninth try that he managed to be successful. In December 2022, he made the crossing alongside groups from sub-Saharan Africa and Maghreb. The majority of his companions were apprehended or he lost communication with them. The photographs depicting his journey vividly illustrate the hardships he endured while walking nearly the entire distance from Turkey to Albania, where he was subsequently apprehended. After several days in detention, where he risked being deported back to Greece, he was ultimately released and instructed to depart the country.
From Irregularity to Legal Status
The latter portion of his journey was comparatively easier, as he predominantly traveled by train. Despite his intention to reach the Netherlands, where his brother resides, he was apprehended in a different country while seeking asylum. Following a span of several months, he was granted refugee status. During his wait, he turned down his brother’s plea to engage in irregular employment in the Netherlands. After enduring a prolonged period of irregularity for multiple years, he finally achieved legal status.
During his time in Turkey, initially, he stayed there on a tourist visa before transitioning into an irregular status for about two years. From an international migration perspective, he was in a state of transit while simultaneously being immobile for an extended period. Nevertheless, evidence from interviews, WhatsApp calls, and written correspondence with him suggests that his time in Turkey was characterized by a high degree of mobility.
Mobility within Immobility
As highlighted, he endeavored for the ninth time to cross the border through different regions of Turkey, both by land and sea. To ensure survival and secure funding for these endeavors, he had to seek employment in various departments across different sectors. For example, he worked as a tea collector in Rize twice, as an agricultural worker in the vicinity of Bursa, in the textile industry as well as other sectors in Istanbul.
He had to stay for several months, mainly in Istanbul but also in various other departments, to ensure the continuation of his journey. In other words, he endured self-imposed periods of immobility to achieve his migration journey. Occasionally, he was mobile before experiencing these periods of immobility.
Phases of (Im)mobility of a Migration Jurney
When considering Salim’s journey from his country of origin to his current country of residence, we observe multiple phases of (im)mobility. Consequently, this journey cannot be interpreted as a simple movement from one country to another, with several transit movements in between. The ability to make such observations stems from a new perspective that takes into account both migration and (im)mobility.
Salim is presently engaged in a battle against cancer, resulting in the loss of his leg. Upon the conclusion of his treatment, he intends to undertake studies in law. His plan is to enroll in Switzerland for a master’s program in Sports Law. It is clear that a long period of immobility is necessary before he can embark on a new international migration journey.
Ibrahim Soysüren is a senior researcher within the nccr – on the move project “Digital Empowerment of Asylum Seekers in Turkey and Refugees in Switzerland to Cope With (Im)Mobility Conditions“at the University of Neuchâtel. The study referred to in the blog post is “Digital empowerment: unpacking ICTs-mediated practices of asylum seekers in Turkey and refugees in Switzerland to cope with (im)mobility conditions.”
Reference:
–Carling, J. (2002). Migration in the age of involuntary immobility: Theoretical reflections and Cape Verdean experiences. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 28(1), 5–42.
–İçduygu, A. (2005). Transit migration in Turkey: Trends, patterns and issues. Research Report 4, European University Institute, Florence.
–Kallius, A., Monterescu, D., & Rajaram, P. K. (2016). Immobilizing mobility: Border ethnography, illiberal democracy, and the politics of the “refugee crisis” in Hungary: Immobilizing mobility. American Ethnologist, 43(1), 25–37.
–Schewel, K. (2020). Understanding Immobility: Moving Beyond the Mobility Bias in Migration Studies. International Migration Review, 54(2), 328–355.
–Wissink, M., & Mazzucato, V. (2018). In transit: Changing social networks of sub-Saharan African migrants in Turkey and Greece. Social Networks, 53, 30-41.
